Pulsed laser ablation in liquids: Fundamentals, solvent effects, and nonequilibrium nanostructures

Abstract

Nanomaterials are central to modern technological innovation, and their progress depends on synthesis methods capable of manipulating structure at the nanoscale. Pulsed laser ablation in liquids (PLAL) has emerged as a powerful platform for generating compositionally complex nanomaterials that exhibit nonequilibrium phases, uniform elemental distributions, and tunable physicochemical properties. Owing to its flexibility, PLAL allows controlled adjustment of particle size, morphology, composition, and surface characteristics-without requiring chemical additives-offering a clean and energy-efficient approach to engineering functional nanostructures. This review outlines the fundamental principles governing PLAL, its advantages and remaining challenges, and emerging strategies to improve synthesis efficiency. We further discuss the formation pathways of diverse PLAL-derived materials, including metals, carbon nanostructures, layered compounds, nitrides, carbides, and sulfides. Together, these insights highlight PLAL's growing potential as a transformative tool for designing next-generation nanomaterials with tailored functionalities across energy, catalysis, and environmental remediation technologies.