Recent Trends in Life Cycle Assessment Studies on Pulp- and Paper-Based Materials

Abstract

The pulp and paper sector is both highly energy- and resource-intensive. However, it remains a key supplier of renewable and recyclable materials in the transition away from fossil-based products. This review synthesizes approximately two decades of life cycle assessment (LCA) studies on pulp- and paper-based materials, with emphasis on research published from approximately 2003 to 2025. The literature is first mapped in terms of processes and products covered, system boundaries, functional units, and regional focus, revealing a strong concentration on mass-based functional units, European and Asian case studies, and attributional LCAs that prioritize climate- and energy-related indicators. Mill- and sector-level case studies consistently identify pulping, bleaching, and drying, as well as associated steam and electricity generation, as dominant contributors to global warming potential and other midpoint impacts. Additionally, they highlight the dual role of kraft mills as both major energy consumers and producers of biomass-based heat and power. Comparative LCAs further evaluate how recycling strategies, end-of-life options, alternative fibers, and paper-based packaging systems perform relative to virgin routes and nonpaper competitors, showing that environmental benefits are highly context-dependent and sensitive to background energy mixes, fiber-yield assumptions, and market-mediated effects. Overall, this review highlights that robust decarbonization and circularity strategies for the pulp and paper sector will require context-specific sets of measures, such as energy-efficiency improvements, fuel switching toward low-carbon and biomass-based energy, optimized waste and wastewater management, and more efficient fiber use, all supported by more consistent, dynamic, and decision-oriented LCA practice.