Designing a Scalable Safety Cost Model for the Surveying Industry: A Dual Approach for Routine and High-Risk Projects

Abstract

The surveying industry, often operating in high-risk environments such as construction sites and transport corridors, currently lacks a standardized framework for estimating and allocating safety management costs. This study proposes a dual-mode safety cost framework designed to address this gap, combining a rate-based model for routine projects with an actual-cost model for complex operations requiring detailed labor, equipment, and safety cost estimation. Employing a mixed-methods approach—comprising regulatory analysis, a nationwide survey (n = 63), and expert interviews (n = 4)—we assess the feasibility and institutional applicability of this framework. Our findings highlight persistent issues in safety budgeting practices, including inconsistent safety protocols, lack of designated safety personnel, and limited training programs. In response, we developed a draft guideline to standardize safety measures across project phases, with criteria for personnel allocation, safety equipment selection, and training schedules. Simulation analyses show that the rate-based model, when applied at 3.5% of the total project costs, simplifies budgeting for routine projects. In contrast, the actual-cost model offers more precise budgeting for high-risk projects, typically accounting for 6–7% of costs depending on complexity. This scalable and adaptable framework is particularly relevant for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and technical service contracts. More broadly, it offers a transferable foundation for integrating safety cost estimation into public infrastructure projects and digital construction workflows, providing a critical policy tool for contexts worldwide that lack formalized safety cost systems.