Sustainable recovery progress of ternary cathodes in lithium-ion batteries in the artificial intelligence era

Abstract

The recycling of lithium-ion battery (LIB) ternary cathodes has become increasingly vital due to the surging demand for electric vehicles (EVs), renewable energy storage, and portable electronics. These cathodes, primarily composed of nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and manganese (Mn), offer high energy density but face significant challenges tied to resource scarcity, environmental impacts, and the complexity of recycling processes. This review emphasizes the urgent need for sustainable recycling solutions, driven by the depletion of critical resources and the environmental footprint of LIB production and disposal. It provides a detailed examination of recycling advancements from 2020 to 2025, focusing on mechanical, pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, biotechnological, and emerging direct recycling methods, while addressing key failure mechanisms. Despite progress in recovery efficiency and material purity, challenges such as low recovery rates, high costs, and intricate battery designs remain. The review also explores future directions, including innovations in recycling technologies, battery designs optimized for recyclability, economy effects, and greater automation. Moreover, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) further accelerates progress by enhancing battery monitoring, optimizing recycling processes, and driving innovation in material design and industrial-scale recycling, paving the way for a sustainable LIB ecosystem. © 2025 Elsevier Ltd